I. Introdution

In recent years we have seen an increase in the financialization of housing and these situations have intensified the socio-economic and environmental challenges, that we were already facing. In this sense, housing has emerged as a significant concern on both the European and Portuguese political agendas, e.g. Agenda-2030 and Habitat-III, particularly due to the escalating difficulties faced by the population to securing adequate housing. This issue has become an even more pronounced in the wake of successive financial crises and of the Covid-19 pandemic (^{Mendes, 2017}; ^{Pavel, 2021}).

Consequently, the existing disparities in access to adequate housing (^{Drago, 2021}), along with the increasing scarcity of social housing for low-income segments of society, have become structural issues affecting metropolitan areas and global cities (^{Jorge, 2022}a; ^{Seixas &Antunes, 2019}; ^{Travasso et al., 2020}).

In order to uphold the fundamental right to housing, it is imperative that effective housing policies are implemented (^{Agarez, 2020}). As claimed by ^{Jorge (2022}a), the right to housing, enshrined in Article 65 of the 1976 Portuguese Constitution, is not a guarantee for all. In this sense, the State plays a key role in creating the established rules in the field of housing, recognised by authors such as ^{Bourdieu (2000}) and ^{Serra (2002}).

The Portuguese Institute for Housing and Urban Rehabilitation conducted a National Survey about Rehousing Needs, in 2018, revealing that 25 762 families were in dire need of housing and alarming presence of 14 748 buildings and 31 526 dwellings which were lacking the minimum habitability conditions (^{Instituto da Habitação e da Reabilitação Urbana [IHRU], 2018}). However, it is suspected that these data may not fully captured the actual extent of the problem (^{Jorge & Viegas, 2020}) and according to Portuguese State Budget for 2024 recent data, around 86 000 families are a number closer to the reality of the problem.

Considering that a portion of the population lacks the financial capacity to afford decent housing in the private housing market, there is justification for significant intervention in the promotion of social housing (^{Borges, 2017}). Portugal has already witnessed efforts to eradicate housing shortage, shacks and dwellings without adequate conditions, through the promotion of social housing programmes for the construction and rehabilitation of housing, including: i) Local Support Ambulatory Service (SAAL) - 1974; ii) Commission for Refugee Accommodation (^{CAR) - 1976}; iii) Medium and Long Term Intervention Program (PIMP)-1987; iv)Special Rehousing Programme (PER) - 1993; v) Financing Program for Access to Housing (PROHABITA) - 2004; and vi) 1st Right - 2018 (fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Slums and projects for their eradication. 

Several studies have provided a theoretical framework for the issue of the social housing in Portugal, particularly in the realm of in the realms of Sociology, Architecture, Urbanism, Geography and Political Science (^{Antunes, 2019}). Some of the most renowned works on social housing policies are ^{Gros (1994}), ^{Silva (1994}), ^{Baptista (1999}), Antunes (2018) and ^{Agarez (2020}), whereas the first three studies focus on the period of the dictatorship, the last two look back 200 and 100 years of housing policies respectively. More specifically concerning housing estates built under these policies, we highlight the studies by ^{Coelho (2009}), ^{Bandeirinha (2007}), ^{Serpa (2018}) and ^{Ramos et. al. (2019}), which present research that systematises and analyses the object in social housing policies.

While these studies serve as a robust foundation, there is a necessity for clarifying the concept of social housing due to variations in its meaning across European countries, as highlighted by ^{Whitehead and Scanlon (2007}). In Portugal, the definition of social housing and its corresponding construction parameters were officially established by Portaria n.º 580/83, 17/05/83. Subsequently, in 1988, a new document known as the Technical Recommendations for Social Housing was introduced, outlining "the quality of the housing to be produced with the support of the State" (Portaria n.º 580/83, 17/05/83. República Portuguesa, 1983). At that time, social housing was defined as follows:

housing with controlled costs promoted by the municipal councils, economic housing cooperatives, private social solidarity institutions and private initiatives with the financial support of the State and destined for its sale or loan under the access conditions established by the present diploma". (Portaria n.º 580/83, 17/05/83. República Portuguesa, 1983)

In 1988, the terminology shifted from ‘social housing’ to ‘affordable housing’ through Portaria n.º 828/88, 29/12/88 (Portaria n.º 828/88, 29/12/88. ^{República Portuguesa, 1988}), leading to various misunderstandings regarding its implications and interpretations. According to ^{Whitehead & Scanlon (2007}), social housing provision in some European countries has not kept pace with the rest on the housing construction. Furthermore, a considerable number of social housing units have either been demolished or privatized, leading to a significant decrease in public housing availability in some countries, well below the average levels seen across Europe.

In the case of Portugal, the majority of social housing, constructed between 1987 and 2011, focused on rehousing low-income households and was primarily initiated by the State or municipalities, with only a limited number of projects initiated by cooperative or social sectors (^{Antunes, 2021}).

At present, social housing accounts for a mere 2% of the total housing stock in Portugal (table I). Although, it is important to stress that in the case of the city of Lisbon is different from the rest of the country, achieving 11% of public housing stock. Also, Portugal, when compared to other countries, has a distinguished characteristic, a substantial portion of this housing stock is dedicated to social housing.

At the present time, the urgency of increasing public housing stock is further amplified by the availability of European funds. Although housing is not inherently a competence of the European Union, but of each Member State, the Report on Access to decent and affordable housing for all (^{European Parliament, 2021}) is a key document that recognises the issue of housing as a human and social right for all on its agenda. The report partially challenged the EU's "stealth housing policy" and the underlying trajectories of the commodification and financialization of housing (^{Delclós & Vidal, 2021}).

Of particular significance to housing policy is the establishment of the Recovery and Resilience Facility, a short-term instrument embedded within the ^{NextGenerationEU} funds, particularly the section dedicated to promoting equal opportunities in housing access. The allocation of these funds is contingent upon the formulation of national Recovery and Resilience Plans (PRR) by each Member State in collaboration with the European Commission (^{Delclós & Vidal, 2021}).

The substantial public investment in the pillar of housing, which constitutes an unprecedented issue, raising important questions for consideration. It leads us to question the efficacy of current housing policies and basic laws in ensuring adequate housing and exploring if there an urban attempt to relate the house to the habitat recent developments in social housing.

In order to answer to these questions, this study focuses on three specific aspects within the realm of social housing programmes: i) housing policies; ii) basic laws; and iii) preliminary programmes for design contests and specifications for rehabilitation contracts.

The adopted methodology involves the selection of four case studies of housing estates located in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area, focusing on the analysis of their; i) location; ii) intervention type; iii) number of dwellings and their typologies; iv) dimension of the housing gross construction; and v) relation between the house and the habitat.

The research centres its physical analysis on the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (LMA) territory, the most densely populated region of Portugal (fig. 4), accommodating approximately 2 849 million people in 2021 (^{INE, 2021}). This area bears the brunt of the housing crisis, as revealed by the National Survey on Rehousing Needs (2018) and is expected to witness the highest number of interventions.

Preliminary findings underscore advancements in social housing, emphasizing the significance of integrating theoretical principles into housing programmes and policies and highlights the opportunity to implementing the right to housing and habitat.

After the introduction, this paper begins by providing the recent housing policies and social housing programme. Then, it develops a reviewed of the basic laws, and the subsequent section, analyses recent developments of social housing through case studies. Finally, the article concludes with the aim of providing a briefing on the main findings.

II. Recent housing policies and social housing programmes

Currently, recent housing policies and social housing programmes have undergone a significant transformation, no longer exclusively targeting individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (^{Portal da Habitação, 2018}).

The New Generation of Housing Policies

The New Generation of Housing Policies (Nova Geração de Políticas de Habitação; NGPH) figure a set of lines of action translated into specific measures, aimed to "guaranteeing access for all to adequate housing, understood in the broad sense of habitat and people-oriented, through a significant broadening of the scope of beneficiaries and the size of the housing stock with public support and creating the conditions for both the rehabilitation of the built environment and urban rehabilitation” (^{Portal da Habitação, 2018}) (table II).

According to ^{Mendes (2020}), and ^{Travasso et al. (2020}), this progressive narrative, included in the NGPH, represents a moment of innovative governmental discourse, aiming to address the structural challenges hindering the progress of the right to housing.

Nevertheless, such contradictions between discourse and practice in the right to housing are also evident in this housing policy and the discourse of a strategic and integrated policy has not been translated into the allocation of budgets by the state to respond to this (^{Mendes, 2020}).

1^st Right programme and Local Housing Strategy

In lines of action that provide a response to families living in severe housing deprivation, the most outstanding measure is the 1^st Right programme (1.º Direito - Programa de Apoio ao Acesso à Habitação, in portuguese). This programme seeks to aid in advancing housing solutions for individuals residing in substandard living conditions, lacking the financial means to afford access to suitable housing. The initiative adopts a promotional strategy primarily focused on the revitalization of construction and rental activities. Additionally, it places reliance on comprehensive and participatory approaches, fostering social and territorial inclusion through collaborative efforts among various sectoral policies and entities. This collaboration extends to interactions between central, regional, and local administrations, as well as between the public, private, and cooperative sectors.

Also, the implementation of this programme is structured in three stages: i) join, ii) operationalisation, and iii) execution (fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Stages in the implementation of the 1 ^st Right programme. 

This programme was the one that received the higher total investment, at the time an investment of 700 million euros, planned until 2024, earmarked for non-reimbursable contributions, and given the urgency of resolving the 26 000 cases of housing shortage, councils can receive 100% non-repayable funding to invest in housing, through the ^{Plano de Recuperação e Resiliência} (PRR; Recovery and Resilience Plan).

In order to move forward with the measure of the 1 ^st right programme, it was up to the municipalities to define the Local Housing Strategies (ELH) (Estratégias Locais de Habitação, in portuguese) in their respective territories and also to aggregate, evaluate and manage all requests for support under the 1st Right programme that are submitted to them (^{Mendes, 2020}).

The objective of the strategy is to addressing housing issues at the local level, and it is part of a broader approach to improving housing conditions in Portugal and ensuring that everyone has access to adequate housing. The main goals also include the identification of local needs, the setting of goals and priorities, the partnerships and financing, the monitoring and evaluation, and the public participation. Its implementation bringing together in a single document the various actions to be pursued over a 10-year time frame.

The main procedures of the Local Housing Strategy from the elaboration to the execution of the solution are diagrammed in the following figure (fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Principais procedimentos para a elaboração da ELH. 

The instrument of the ELH stands out as a privileged form of partnership between local actors, playing a fundamental role in the evaluation of municipal strategies by the central state. At the same time, the formulation of ELH represents an initial opportunity to systematically address the role of knowledge in housing policies (^{Allegra & Colombo, 2019}).

According to ^{Jorge (2022}, p. 116), "although the ELH were a condition for accessing funding under the 1st Right programme, they were not exhausted there, insisting on the need to look at housing across the board". In agreement with the above statement is Oro, who argues that ELH are a good strategy for moving from individualised practices to integrated policies (Oro et. al., 2019).

As fragile aspects of the strategy development process, ^{Jorge (2022}) points to the diagnostic process -which was difficult to carry out on the ground, with few of the municipalities analysed taking a participatory approach - the setting up of multidisciplinary teams - with insufficient financial support being allocated - the demanding speed with which the strategies were approved - due to the exceptional conditions for benefiting from guaranteed funding until 2026 - and the operationalisation of the strategies.

In the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (LMA) - that integrates the Greater Lisbon and the Setúbal Peninsula sub-regions- all the eighteen municipalities have already approved their ELH and are currently taking the first steps towards building or rehabilitating housing estates (fig. 4 and table III).

According to the Portuguese State Budget for 2024, submitted to Parliament on 10^th October 2023, almost 88% of the country municipalities are developing ELH and currently 270 municipalities, out of a total of 308 municipalities, have already signed collaboration agreements with the Institute for Housing and Urban Rehabilitation under the 1^st Right programme.

However, the PRR's weekly monetization reports indicate a low rate of execution and financial implementation, with the report dated Dec. 6, 2023 stating that the financial implementation rate for the housing component is 9% paid to direct and final beneficiaries and 7% "in transit" to intermediate beneficiaries. Of the 1 940M€ approved, only 286M€ have been paid out (PRR, 2023). So, the rates of the implementation and execution of the ELH, through the 1st Right programme, are also low (^{IHRU, 2020}).

Fig. 4 Dwellings planned to be built and rehabilitated in LMA (2022-2023). 

^{Jorge (2022}a) claimes the 1st Right programme, the Basis law on housing, and the PRR - legitimizes a new symbolic monopoly of the State over the territory.

The space that results from it, structured based on specific forms of power, interests, and motivations, is, in turn, crossed by the cleavages generated by the agents that are part of the ‘housing policy field’: from those who conceive and validate them to those who execute them and initially benefit from them. (^{Jorge, 2022}a, p. 116)

III. Recent basic laws and social housing programmes

Recent social housing developments need to be observed also within the scope of the basic laws of Public Policy on Soil, Land Use Planning and Urban Planning and Housing.

The figure of basic law is a statute that establishes the overarching principles governing legislative actions within a specific domain of operation. Typically, it necessitates the promulgation of supplementary legislation by the government of the nation. This concept is articulated in Article 198, no.3 of the Constitution of the Portuguese Republic of 2005 (Lei n.º 1/2005, de 12/08/05, ^{República Portuguesa, 2005}).

It is important to analyse these basic laws, as they have a direct influence on housing policies and programmes. While the basic laws of public policy on soil, land use planning, keeps the relationship between the right to property, the right to build and the right to urbanise imprecise, thus favouring market deregulation (^{Guinote, 2019}), the basic law on housing led to the adaptation of the instruments created under the New Generation of Housing Policies and the creation of the National Housing Programme.

IV. Recent social housing developments

Within this new phase of urban and housing social developments, it is crucial to return to the initial question - how the recent housing developments are trying to relate the house to the habitat - and analyse these housing estates to address to this matter.

The housing estates selected as case studies are a small sample of what is being developed under the 1^st Right programme, funded by the PRR, and included in the EHL for municipalities. According to the contracts signed until 2020, rehabilitation and acquisition to rehabilitation were the main priorities, rather than land acquisition and the construction of new housing (^{IHRU, 2020}). So, the case studies were selected with the purpose of showing this diversity of strategies.

According to the contracts signed until 2020, rehabilitation and Acquisition to Rehabilitation were the main priorities, rather than land acquisition and the construction of new housing.

Four case studies were selected, in different municipalities of LMA, two located in the Greater Lisbon - Galeão housing estate and Eixo Norte/Sul housing estate in Camarate, municipality of Loures - and the other two located in the Setúbal Peninsula - Alves Redol municipal housing estate, municipality of Barreiro and Manteigadas municipal housing estate, municipality of Setúbal (fig. 5).

This case studies were analysed according to the following parameters: i) location; ii) intervention type; iii) number of dwellings and their typologies; iv) dimension of the housing gross construction; and v) relation between the house and the habitat, in order to access in which territories are these recent housing developments being built, what are their architectural characteristics and if there an urban attempt to relate the house to the habitat, like the Basic law of housing propose (table V).

By observing the process of development of this social housing estates construction and rehabilitation, which is still in its early stages and scheduled to be finished by 2026, we can already discern early indicators of its process and begin to shape some initial reflections. As seen earlier, the implementation and execution rates of the ELH, through the 1^st Right programme, are low, which jeopardises progress in the field.

Concerning the possibilities for constructing new social housing or rehabilitating of the existing municipal housing stock, municipalities that own municipal land and/or municipal housing stock are able to move forward more quickly than the other municipalities that have yet to make acquisitions. The intervention sites are usually areas that need to be redeveloped and consolidated in urban terms. This situation presents an opportunity to meet the principles of the Basic Law on Housing: the creation of habitats that promote social integration.

In terms of decisions to intervene in territories of ‘intense’ construction of social housing - where land expropriated by the state and allocated to social housing programmes (^{Ferreira, 1987}) - there has been a change in strategy. IHRU, in collaboration with the municipalities, decided to build affordable housing under the controlled costs programme, in the same territories where mass construction of social housing, in large-scale complexes, was built before, e.g. Chelas Valley Urbanization Plan - plan for the construction of social and affordable housing in the city of Lisbon (^{Borges et al., 2022}) - or the Integrated Plans (Plano Integrado, in portuguese) for the municipalities of Almada and Setúbal (^{Lopes et al., 2021}).

Regarding the architectural features it is possible to observe, from the preliminary programmes of design competitions, a preference for a ‘contemporary vision of living’ (Ordem dos Arquitectos Secção Regional Sul, 2022). This translates into the promotion of diversified typologies, according to aspects such as solar orientation and position on the façade, balconies as an extension of the common living areas of the dwelling, private and sheltered clotheslines, and open kitchens on large and generously sized spaces.

The integration of the building and its relationship with the surroundings is also privileged, proposing an experience of the surrounding public space, as well as the creation of spatiality and environments that correspond to a way of living today. This could be materialized in the increasing of qualification of the surrounding public space.

It is essential to emphasize, that the recent developments in the field of social housing in Portugal, under the framework of the NGPH, in particular the 1^st Right programme , have already allowed to notice that besides the construction of current legislation, it is still advised to follow the good practices in the sector of the affordable housing, having even some of the competitions - as was the case of the municipality of Almada - made available and recommended the book Technical Recommendations for Social Housing (Portaria n.º 580/83, 17/05/83 . ^{República Portuguesa, 1983}.) and other recommendations by IHRU.

Fig. 5 Case studies of housing estates promoted by the 1^st Right programme. 

Table V Data on housing estates according to analysis parameters (2022-2023). 

¹ Intervention in common spaces, kitchens, and sanitary facilities; ² Housing gross floor area; ³ Not including the value of the land; ⁴ Preliminary programme information; 5 Evaluation of the public competition jury information. N/I, para uniformizar. N/I - No information. Source: ^{Ordem dos Arquitectos Secção Regional Sul, 2022}; Setúbal and Barreiro Municipal Council, 2023

This denotes the result of very identical architectural features, leaving little space for architectural experimentation, visible in previous public housing programmes and in some of them in these same territories (^{Coelho & Coelho, 2009}).

Regarding the urban attempt to relate the house to the habitat, there are elements both in the preliminary programmes of design competitions or in the specifications of rehabilitation works that indicate a political will to mitigate socio-spatial fragmentation in these territories and a slight emphasis on the issue of habitat. We emphasise the importance given to the production of urban models that create collective dwellings, new centralities, relationship with the surroundings and public spaces (^{Ordem dos Arquitectos, Secção Regional Sul, 2022}) and the rehabilitation that intervene in their surroundings, providing solutions for the problems of mobility, buildings, and public space.

However, what is meant by habitat in the basic law on housing is not just a question of public space or new centralised areas, but rather "the territorial and social context outside the dwelling in which it is located, particularly with regard to the surrounding area, infrastructure and public facilities, as well as access to essential public services and transport and communications networks" (Lei n.º 83/2019, de 03/09/2019. República Portuguesa, 2019a).

In addition to this concept of habitat, the basic law also states that the "guarantee of the right to housing includes the existence of a habitat that ensures conditions of health, safety, environmental quality and social integration, allowing the full enjoyment of the housing unit and the spaces and equipment for collective use and contributing to the quality of life and well-being of individuals and to the establishment of neighbourhood and community ties" (Lei n.º 83/2019, de 03/09/2019. ^{República Portuguesa, 2019}a, p. 15).

In this sense, we can't say that the construction of these new social housing estates or the rehabilitation of municipal housing stock will guarantee the people living in these territories the right to housing and habitat, as expressed in the basic law, since many of these housing estates have structural deficiencies in these elements that constitute the notion of habitat, and these projects don't address all of these aspects

V. Final reflections

The fundamental role of housing as human right is undeniable. However, we are still far from guaranteeing the constitutional right to housing and the habitat and despite the efforts much still remains to be done.

The chronic fragility of the housing sector calls for fundamental reforms in terms of guidelines, planning methods and the management of policy instruments. In this sense, the definition and practicability of a housing policy presupposes like a rigorous assessment of needs, the setting of strategic objectives, a clear definition of the actions of the promotion sectors, the allocation of institutional and financial responsibilities, the definition of promotion systems and the guarantee of means and resources (^{Ferreira, 1987}).

Based on these criteria for successful implementation of housing policies, the ongoing process of new social housing development have several discouraging factors, that the previous sections have highlighted:

The first factor is the importance of solving the structural problem of housing in Portugal in an articulated way, and not just through construction in order to avoid the "restricted vision, disjointed and devoid of regulation" (^{Mendes, 2021}, p. 83).

The second, is that the housing policies and basic laws contributed to heading in the direction on guaranteeing adequate housing and habitat, although in the implementation of the programmes in the territory this is not a reality. Like Oro argues, “housing will not contribute to equitable social development if its promotion is (…) articulated with the rest of public policies” (Oro et. al., 2019, p. 68) and also ^{Jorge (2022}b), that the link between housing policy and land policy is an open opportunity.

The third, refers to the fact that this process is being carried out on a municipal scale and not on a metropolitan scale, as for instance the issue of mobility is being considered. In accordance with ^{Jorge (2022}b), the territorialisation of public housing policies ought to be responsive and tailored to the geographic and scalar diversity of varying needs and in this adaptation should consider the distinct realities. Despite the existence of a Metropolitan Housing Working Group, constituted by the institutions of the LMA and the Municipalities, and the beginning of a process that contributes to better prepare the region in terms of housing policies, all the developments were made, so far, on a municipal scale, particularly with the ELH.

The fourth, depends on the time factor, not only because of the hurry to do it quickly to obtain funding, in the logic of " first come, first served" (^{Mendes, 2020}) and in the hurry to build in time to achieve the 2026 target. However, this rush is not the only problem, the structural problem lies in the way of planning, as there was no proactive and timely approach by the municipalities, in a perspective of prevention, but rather a reactive approach, which results in late and outdated responses (^{Antunes, 2021}).

The fifth, refers to the issue that the number of families in situations of housing deprivation has largely exceeded the established number. Therefore, the total value of the PRR will not be sufficient to provide adequate housing for all these families, much less to be extended to cover other families with difficulties in accessing the private housing market.

The sixth and last, concerns the issue of housing and habitat design. As mentioned, public housing has always opened to experimentation and innovation in terms of architectural and urban design. However, given the limits, whether economical, programmatic, or circumstantial, if we observe the results of the competitions and rehabilitation, we can see little diversity and innovation, which goes against the so intended contemporary vision of living.

As a final assumption, it is important to reaffirm the importance and need not only for the articulation between current housing programmes, policies and basic laws, in order to guarantee adequate housing and habitat, but also the irreplaceable role of the State and the Central Government to define these policies and approach municipalities to execute them.

Perhaps local authorities have an important opportunity to implementing the right to housing and habitat in their territories with the new wave of housing estates construction and rehabilitation, particularly in neighbourhoods that have been the target of dense urbanisation plans and large-scale complexes of social housing, since many of these have structural deficiencies.

Authors' contributions

Sara Silva Lopes: Conceptualisation; Methodology; Software; Validation; Formal analysis; Research; Resources; Data curation; Writing - preparation of original draft; Writing - proofreading and editing; Visualisation; Acquisition of funding. Teresa Marat-Mendes: Writing - preparation of original draft; Writing - proofreading and editing; Supervision.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT), as part of a PhD project entitled “Housing in Democracy: Morphological and social structures of housing policies in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area” (Grant number 2021/5568/BD). The authors would like to thank to and to the reviewers who, according to the journal’s peer review model, meticulously reviewed the submitted paper and supporting the quality of the publication.